H12-223 book - HCNP-R&S-IENP(Improving Enterprise Network Performance) Updated: 2023

People have grown the grain for at least 5,000 years. It is a staple food for more than half of the world’s population, and 90% of the world’s rice comes from Asia.

There are thousands of types of rice, but depending on how producers process them, they fit into two groups: white or brown (whole grain).

White rice is the most common type, though brown rice offers more health benefits. Brown rice comes in a variety of shades, including reddish, purplish, or black. It has more fiber, which helps support gut health and reduce inflammation.

Manufacturers make many products from rice, including rice flour, rice syrup, rice bran oil, and rice milk.

This article looks at the nutrition, health benefits, and risks of white and brown rice.

Both white and brown rice contain mainly carbohydrate and some protein, with virtually no fat or sugar.

Cooked rice contains a lot of water, making up almost 70% of its total weight.

White and brown rice have similar calorie, carbohydrate, protein, and fat content. A 100 gram (g) serving of white, short-grain, cooked rice contains the following nutrients:

Carbohydrate

Rice is primarily composed of carbohydrate, which makes up almost 80% of its total dry weight.

Most of the carbohydrate in rice is starch. Starch is the most common form of carbohydrate in foods.

Starch is made up of long chains of glucose called amylose and amylopectin. Different types of rice have varying amounts of these compounds, which affects the texture of the rice:

• Basmati rice is rich in amylose, meaning it does not stick together after cooking.
• Sticky rice, or glutinous rice, is low in amylose and high in amylopectin, making it sticky after cooking. This makes it ideal for risottos, rice pudding, and eating with chopsticks.

These compounds also affect how easily the body can digest the rice.

The body takes longer to digest high-amylose rice because the amylose slows down starch digestion. In contrast, the body digests sticky rice very easily.

While many people find sticky rice more palatable, quick digestion can lead to unhealthful spikes in blood sugar levels, especially in people with diabetes.

Fiber

Brown rice contains a higher amount of dietary fiber than white rice — 1.6 g per 100 g. During the processing of white rice, the grain loses the bran, or seed coat, which contains most of the fiber.

The bran contains mainly insoluble fibers, such as hemicellulose, and virtually no soluble fiber.

White and brown rice contain varying amounts of a soluble fiber called resistant starch.

Resistant starch increases butyrate in the gut. Butyrate boosts gut health by reducing inflammation, improving gut barrier function, and reducing the risk of colon cancer.

Read more about soluble and insoluble fiber here.

White rice is refined, polished, and stripped of its bran and germ. This increases its cooking quality, shelf life, and tastiness, but significantly reduces its nutritional value. That said, manufacturers usually enrich white rice or replace some vitamins after processing.

Brown rice is an intact whole grain, containing both the bran and the germ, which are the most nutritious parts of the grain. They contain fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants.

For this reason, brown rice may contain more fiber and nutrients than white rice. Be sure to compare labels when shopping.

Brown rice is better for people with diabetes. White rice can raise blood sugar, while brown rice has a lower glycemic index and can help with blood sugar control.

Read more about white vs. brown rice here.

Aside from providing energy and basic nutrients, refined white rice does not offer any health benefits. Enriched white rice does contain added B vitamins that are important for health.

On the other hand, regular consumption of brown, or whole grain, rice can have health benefits. Be sure to compare labels when shopping.

Heart health

Brown rice is a whole grain. Whole grains have a wide range of health benefits.

According to the American Heart Association, whole grains Boost blood cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and obesity.

Brown rice contains several heart healthy components, such as minerals, antioxidants, lignans, and dietary fiber.

Eating high fiber rice as a substitute for white rice may aid weight loss, along with a decrease in cholesterol.

Healthful plant compounds

Brown rice contains several other plant compounds that research has linked with health benefits.

White rice is a poor source of antioxidants and other plant compounds. Pigmented rice, including red-grained varieties such as purple rice, is particularly rich in antioxidants.

The bran of brown rice may be a good source of lignans and ferulic acid:

• Lignans are antioxidants that research has linked with lower risks of heart disease, menopausal symptoms, osteoporosis, and breast cancer.
• Ferulic acid is a potent antioxidant found in rice bran. Review studies say it has anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects and may help prevent cancer and diabetes.

Vitamins and minerals

The nutrient value of rice depends on the variety and cooking method. The bran and germ contain a high concentration of vitamins and minerals. White rice does not contain bran or germ and lacks these essential dietary nutrients.

Enrichment may add back some vitamins to white rice. Be sure to read labels when shopping, as different brands may add different vitamins.

The following table looks at the amounts of different nutrients in 100 g of brown rice, white rice, and enriched white rice for comparison:

• Manganese: Many foods, especially whole grains, contain this trace mineral. It is essential for metabolism, growth, development, and the body’s antioxidant system.
• Niacin: Also known as vitamin B-3, niacin in rice is mostly in the form of nicotinic acid. Soaking rice in water before cooking may increase its absorption.
• Thiamin: Also known as vitamin B-1, thiamin is essential for metabolism and the function of the heart, muscles, and nervous system.
• Selenium: A mineral with various vital functions for the DNA, oxidative damage, and hormones.
• Magnesium: This mineral is essential for blood pressure, protein synthesis, energy, and more.

Rice also contains some pantothenic acid, phosphorus, riboflavin, and vitamin B-6, copper, and folate.

Rice is a safe food staple. Regularly eating rice may, however, have risks, especially if it accounts for a large proportion of a person’s daily food intake.

Type 2 diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is a common condition characterized by high blood sugar levels.

According to a 2019 review, white rice may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes. This is because it has a high glycemic index score, meaning that it can cause large spikes in blood sugar after a meal. Foods with a high glycemic index may increase the risk of diabetes.

That said, the review concludes that the differences between brown and white rice are inconclusive, and further studies in dietary patterns characterized by rice are needed.

On the other hand, brown rice — like other whole grains that contain fiber — may help reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.

This difference between white and brown rice may be due to variations in the types and amounts of fibers and their glycemic index scores. It is important to note that consuming too many carbohydrates from any source can raise blood glucose levels, so it is important to control portion size regardless of whether the rice is whole grain or refined.

Eating fiber-rich whole grains instead of refined grains may have significant health benefits, including a reduced risk of diabetes.

Read more about rice and diabetes here.

Heavy metals

Heavy metals can accumulate in the body over time, leading to adverse health effects. These include cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel, and arsenic.

Many studies have reported excessive amounts of heavy metals in rice from several countries. This a particular concern where rice makes up a significant portion of a person’s diet.

The bran contains a high concentration of heavy metals, which is why brown rice contains more heavy metals than white rice.

Compared to other common food crops grown in polluted areas, rice accumulates higher amounts of mercury and arsenic.

All cereal grains easily take up arsenic, but it seems to collect more in rice compared with wheat and barley.

If possible, people should avoid eating rice grown near heavily polluted industrial or mining areas. This also applies to other food crops, such as vegetables.

Antinutrients

Brown rice also contains an antioxidant called phytic acid, or phytate. This is known as an antinutrient because it prevents the body from absorbing essential minerals, such as iron and zinc.

Producers can reduce phytic acid levels by soaking and sprouting the seeds and fermenting the rice before cooking.

Rice is a staple food across the world. White rice is the most common, but brown rice may have more health benefits.

As a good source of several healthy minerals and antioxidants, brown rice may help prevent heart disease.

On the other hand, white rice — especially sticky rice — provides fewer nutrients and may raise the risk of type 2 diabetes.

Be sure to read the nutrition facts panel and compare the nutrient content and purchase enriched versions of rice when available.

Rice and rice products are available for purchase in grocery stores and online.

Citric acid was first derived from lemon juice by a Swedish researcher in 1784 (1).

The odorless and colorless compound was produced from lemon juice until the early 1900s when researchers discovered that it could also be made from the black mold Aspergillus niger, which creates citric acid when it feeds on sugar (1, 2).

Because of its acidic, sour-tasting nature, citric acid is predominantly used as a flavoring and preserving agent, especially in soft drinks and candies.

It’s also used to stabilize or preserve medicines and as a disinfectant.

Summary

Citric acid is a compound originally derived from lemon juice. It’s produced today from a specific type of mold and used in a variety of applications.

Citrus fruits and their juices are the best natural sources of citric acid (3).

In fact, the word citric originates from the Latin word citrus (2).

Examples of citrus fruits include:

• lemons
• limes
• oranges
• grapefruits
• tangerines
• pomelos

Other fruits also contain citric acid but in lesser amounts. These include:

• pineapple
• strawberries
• raspberries
• cranberries
• cherries
• tomatoes

Beverages or food products that contain these fruits — such as ketchup in the case of tomatoes — also contain citric acid.

While not naturally occurring, citric acid is also a byproduct of cheese, wine, and sourdough bread production.

The citric acid listed in the ingredients of foods and supplements is manufactured — not what’s naturally found in citrus fruits (4).

This is because producing this additive from citrus fruits is too expensive, and the demand far exceeds the supply.

Summary

Lemons, limes, and other citrus fruits are the predominant natural sources of citric acid. Other fruits that contain much smaller amounts of it include certain berries, cherries, and tomatoes.

The characteristics of citric acid make it an important additive for a variety of industries.

Food and beverages use an estimated 70% of manufactured citric acid, pharmaceutical and dietary supplements use 20%, and the remaining 10% goes into cleaning agents (4).

Food industry

Manufactured citric acid is one of the most common food additives in the world.

It’s used to boost acidity, enhance flavor, and preserve ingredients (5).

Sodas, juices, powdered beverages, candies, frozen foods, and some dairy products often contain manufactured citric acid.

It’s also sometimes added to canned fruits and vegetables to protect against botulism, a rare but serious illness caused by the toxin-producing Clostridium botulinum bacterium.

Medicines and dietary supplements

Citric acid is an industrial staple in medicines and dietary supplements.

It’s added to medicines to help stabilize and preserve the active ingredients and used to enhance or mask the taste of chewable and syrup-based medications (6).

Mineral supplements, such as magnesium and calcium, may also contain citric acid (in the form of citrate) to enhance absorption.

Disinfecting and cleaning

Citric acid is a useful disinfectant against a variety of bacteria and viruses (7, 8, 9).

A test-tube study showed that it may treat or prevent human norovirus, a leading cause of foodborne illness (10).

Citric acid is commercially sold as a general disinfectant and cleaning agent for removing soap scum, hard water stains, lime, and rust.

It’s viewed as a safer alternative to conventional disinfectant and cleaning products, such as quat and chlorine bleach (1).

Summary

Citric acid is a versatile additive for food, beverages, medicines, and dietary supplements, as well as cleaning and disinfecting products.

Citric acid has many impressive health benefits and functions.

Metabolizes energy

Citrate — a closely related molecule of citric acid — is the first molecule that forms during a process called the citric acid cycle.

Also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) or Krebs cycle, these chemical reactions in your body help transform food into usable energy (11).

Humans and other organisms derive the majority of their energy from this cycle.

Enhances nutrient absorption

Supplemental minerals are available in a variety of forms.

But not all forms are created equal, as your body uses some more effectively.

Citric acid enhances the bioavailability of minerals, allowing your body to better absorb them (12, 13, 14).

For example, calcium citrate doesn’t require stomach acid for absorption. It also has fewer side effects — such as gas, bloating, or constipation — than another form called calcium carbonate (15, 16).

Thus, calcium citrate is a better option for people with less stomach acid, such as older adults.

Similarly, magnesium in the citrate form is absorbed more completely and more bioavailable than magnesium oxide and magnesium sulfate (17, 18, 19).

May protect against kidney stones

Citric acid — in the form of potassium citrate — prevents new kidney stone formation and breaks apart those already formed (20, 21, 22).

Kidney stones are solid masses made of crystals that typically originate in your kidneys.

Citric acid protects against kidney stones by making your urine less favorable for the formation of stones (23).

Kidney stones are often treated with citric acid as potassium citrate. However, consuming foods high in this natural acid — like citrus fruits — can offer similar kidney-stone-preventing benefits (3, 24).

Summary

Citric acid helps with energy metabolism, the absorption of minerals, and the prevention or treatment of kidney stones.

Manufactured citric acid is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (5).

No scientific studies exist investigating the safety of manufactured citric acid when consumed in large amounts for long periods.

Still, there have been reports of sickness and allergic reactions to the additive.

One report found joint pain with swelling and stiffness, muscular and stomach pain, as well as shortness of breath in four people after they consumed foods containing manufactured citric acid (4).

These same symptoms were not observed in people consuming natural forms of the acid, such as lemons and limes.

Researchers acknowledged that they couldn’t prove the manufactured citric acid was responsible for those symptoms but recommended that its use in foods and beverages be further studied.

In either case, the scientists suggested that the symptoms were most likely related to the mold used to produce the citric acid rather than the compound itself.

Summary

A small report suggests that the mold residues from manufactured citric acid may lead to allergies and other illnesses, but this has yet to be proven.

Citric acid is naturally found in citrus fruits, but synthetic versions, which are produced from a type of mold, are commonly added to foods, medicines, supplements, and cleaning agents.

While mold residues from the manufacturing process may trigger allergies in rare cases, citric acid is generally deemed safe.